SPINOZA – The Absolute Philosopher

Background
Towards the end of 15th Century, around the time when Columbus was in pursuit of discovering India, Ferdinand the King of Spain, who financed Columbus Journey, started persecuting the Jews in his kingdom of central Europe, not for any religious acrimony but to grow his exchequer.

Jews who were wealthy merchants and traders then fled for their safety. From the many ports in Europe they boarded vessels in search of a peaceful refuge. In predominant Christian Europe and Islamic Africa they were not welcomed in most of the places. They were killed in Africa for the jewelries they were expected to have swallowed. Some settled in Venice but a majority of them took refuge in small but large hearted country of Holland. Espinoza, a Portuguese Jews family was one among them.

Jews prospered in Holland. They built there first Synagogue in 1598. Seventy five years later they built there second synagogue with the help of local Christians. The perennially persecuted Jews were indebted to the Christian inhabitants for giving them shelter when they were thrown out from Europe and not only that they got a peaceful and conducive environment in which they flourished in trade.

So when Jew Uriel A Costa wrote a treatise vigorously attacking the Concept of Afterlife, which was not very contrary to the Jews belief, the synagogue compelled him to retract publicly lest it hurts the religious sentiments of the Christians who till now have been very benevolent and tolerant towards the Jews. Uriel A Costa had to undergo the penance and the ritual required him to lay prostrate in front of threshold of synagogue and members of congregation would walk over him. After the ritual Uriel A Costa went home with a pride of a dead man. Agitated, he wrote denunciation of his persecutors and shot himself dead.

This was 1640. Brauch Espinoza (Spinoza), the brightest student of aforementioned Synagogue was then just 8 years old. This incident made a big impact in his life.The precocious boy, to whom the community was looking forward, then drowned himself in the study of Jewish philosophy and theology. Unsatiated he started learning Latin so that he could read Hellenic philosophy. But aside Latin he also got interested in the beautiful daughter of his master. He is not to be blamed because in youthfulness such dalliance are natural and more so when beauty was this ethereal. But the girl didn’t find our boy worthy enough in front of precious gifts bestowed on her by another suitor. She left Spinoza and the world should be indebted to her for her infidelity. This was the event which turned the Spinoza into a philosopher and arguably the most important philosopher of modern time.
Unrequited in love he found solace in Latin, which he mastered. He read Greek masters like Plato and Aristotle but consented more with Stoics, Democritus, Epicurus and the atomist. But he was influenced most by Descartes(of "'Cogito Ergo Sum' : I Think, therefore I am" fame) the father of subjective and idealist tradition in modern philosophy to whose concept of ‘Homogenous substance’ he concurred the most. Not only he concurred but he took it from where Desecrates left and propounded it further removing the duality of matter and mind saying that all being in this world arose from one homogenous, infinite, free 'Substance'.Reader must not take the word 'Substance' literally for we'll see later that it is much more profound, in fact the profoundest thing.
For his iconoclastic view, this once poster child of synagogue, was called by the Jews Clergy and asked to publicly agree with the normative Jews beliefs, at least externally for which he was offered an annuity of $500.
The difference between an ordinary man and an extraordinary man is that of an extra which he engenders. Ordinary man concurs to the views which are prevailing in the society but an extraordinary man creates his own which can be contrarian to popular views. Not only he creates but also he sticks to it despite all odds.Spinoza was an extraordinary man. He refused the offer.
Hence he was excommunicated not much because Clergy have started disliking him but more to appease the native Christians lest there religious sentiments are hurt. But Spinoza was no A Costa and he took excommunication with a great courage.
He shifted to Hague and subsisted for rest of his life by grinding lenses. On 20 Feb. 1677 he died leaving a great work unpublished the task of which he bestowed to his friend. His sublime work 'Ethics' was published after his death. ‘Ethics’ brought him his due greatness though posthumously. Lets us have a glimpse at what he taught.

Philosophy
Just as in Geometry where in conclusion follows from axiom which is taken as universal truth, in Spinoza’s system moral and physical facts which philosopher considers follows from their Definition. The three main elements of Spinoza’s system are Substance, Attribute and Mode.

Theory of Substance: Substance exists in itself and is conceived by itself. Substance is its own cause, otherwise it would have been produced by something else and in that cased it would not have been substance. Substance is infinite. If it was finite it would be limited by other substance and consequently depend on them and in that case it would not be a substance. There is only one substance. If there is more than one then they would limit each other and hence dependent on each other hence not a substance. Hence there is only one substance which depends on nothing and on which everything depends. Now substance should not be taken in literal term. Here we should avoid referring anything as substance which ceases to exist by itself. The term should signify the being which exist in itself and is conceived by itself and on which all other things are dependent and derived and if that makes it a God then lets accept that God alone is substance and substance is God. Since Substance is all by itself, infinite and alone its free. But its liberty is synonymous with necessity but not with constrain. To act necessarily means to determine one’s self, to act under constrain is to be determined, in spite of one’s self, by an external cause. It has neither intellect nor will. Had it had these it would have acted for an end in view but it doesn’t. It is the efficient cause of the things.

Theory of Attributes: Attribute means the essence of the substance. Substance (God) has infinite attributes each of which expresses distinctively the essence of it. Human intellect knows two attributes of substance: extension and the thought. Now attributes are not inherent to God. It is the way in which intellect can perceive god which can be in infinitely different ways (attributes) Spinoza holds that God has neither will nor intelligence yet he attributes thought to him and speaks of infinite intelligence. This is contradicting in nature. This opposition can be cleared if we understand that Spinoza’s God is not the creature of universe but universe it self. Now indeed there is reason and logic in universe but that has not come consciously by thinking of God but is inherent to universe and comes unconsciously. Just as a spider weaves it web without slightest notion of geometry and reason the Spinoza’s god is unconsciously intelligent.

Theory of Mode: Mode signifies the modification of the substance, i.e. that which exists in and is conceived by something other than itself. The modifications of extention are motion and rest and modification of thought are intellect and will. Thus movement, intellect and will are modes (modification) of substance or its attributes. Like substance and its infinite attributes modes are also infinite in nature. Each infinite mode consists of infinite series of finite mode e.g. motion is eternal but the corporeal form which it constitutes originates and decays. The human soul like all intellectual modes is modification of infinite thought. Similarly human body is modification of infinite extension. Since the intellectual or ideal order and the real or corporeal order are parallel, every soul corresponds to a body, and every body corresponds to an idea. The mind is therefore the conscious image of body. Sensation is a bodily phenomena; it is prerogative of human and animal bodies and result from the superior organization of their body. Similarly Perception is the mental phenomena. As a body is affected by sensation, mind creates and image or idea about this sensation.

Reverence
Late 20th century Europe demonstrated a greater philosophical interest in Spinoza, often from a left-wing or Marxist perspective. Gilles Deleuze’s, the French philosopher, doctoral thesis, published in 1968, refers to him as "the prince of philosophers”. He called Spinoza the Absolute philosopher for his philosophical accomplishments. George Eliot translated, for the first time, ‘Ethics’ in English. W. Somerset Maugham alluded to one of Spinoza's central concepts with the title of his novel, “Of Human Bondage”. Albert Einstein named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his world view Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity. In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings."

Ranjish hee sahi ...

This beautiful ghazal is wriiten by Ahmed Faraz

रंजिश ही सही दिल ही दुखाने के लिए आ,
आ फिर से मुझे छोड़ के जाने के लिए आ

[रंजिश = Anger, Annyoance]

पहले से मरासिमं ना सही फिर भी कभी तो,
रस्म-ओ-राहे दुनिया की निभाने के लिए आ

[मारासिम = Friendship]

किस किस को बताएँगे जुदाई का सबब हम,
तू मुझ से ख़फा है तो ज़माने के लिए आ

[सबब = reason]

कुछ तो मेरे पिंदार-ए-मुहब्बत का भरम रख,
तू भी तो कभी मुझ को मनाने के लिए आ

[पिंदार-ए-मुहब्बत = Love's Pride]

एक उम्र से हूँ लज़्ज़त-ए-गिरिया से भी महरूम,
ऐ राहत-ए-जान मुझ को रुलाने के लिए आ

[लज़्ज़त-ए-गिरिया = taste of tears, महरूम = devoid,राहत-ए-जान = Peace of life]

अब तक दिल-ए-खुश फहम को तुझ से हैं उम्मीदें,
ये आखरी शम्मे भी बुझाने के लिए आ

माना की मुहब्बत का छुपाना है मुहब्बत,
चुपके से किसी रोज़ जताने के लिए आ

जैसे तुझे आते हैं ना आने के बहाने,
ऐसे ही किसी रोज़ ना जाने के लिए आ

A vignette of French Revolution

As Thomas Jefferson was drafting ‘Declaration of American Independence’ in 1776, he couldn’t have avoid thanking France for the help extended to America. Thirteen American colonies gained independence on 4th of July 1776 when continental congress of America adopted the statement of ‘Declaration of American Independence’ and the French taxpayers had a huge monetary contribution in this. Philosophically, the Declaration stressed two Lockean themes: individual rights and the right of revolution. These ideas of the Declaration had an influence internationally, in particular the French Revolution.When Americans were fighting for their Independence, France funded them against their common enemy; the British, and funded to the extent of its own bankruptcy..

So when 20 year old prince Louis XVI, The Bourbon, who was married to an Austrian princess Marie Antoinette, ascended the thrown in 1774 he found an empty treasury with which he has to fund the wars, bear the extravagant court and a resplendent Versailles; after all the French regalia was a signature of pomp and royalty and the grandeur had to be maintained. So the apparent thing which most of the kings in such circumstance would do is to increase the revenue and the easiest way to do so is to increase the taxes.

But in eighteenth century France King did not have the veto right to impose the taxes. He had to take approval from the Estate General. Estate General was a body with representatives from all the three estates.

Before I move forward with the cause and course of revolution let me clear what the three estates are. For this we have to look at the societal system prevailing in France in early eighteenth century. Broadly there were three types of people categorized by three estates. The first estate comprised of clergy, the second nobility and the third which comprised almost everyone was the third estate. Peasants, traders, artisan etc made up the third estate. Most of the lands and wealth was owned by first two estates and no taxes were imposed on them. Only the third estate required to pay the taxes. There were two important taxes; one direct tax levied by government called Taille and other levied by Church called Tithe. Apart from these two taxes there were indirect taxes. We see here that entire burden of tax was on common man.

The population of France increased from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, but there was not a proportionate increase in food grains production. There was scarcity of food grain. Prices of essential commodities were very high leading to subsistence crisis.

An important demographic change was taking place in the third estate. A new class was emerging: The middle class. Many people of third estate were making money from trading and manufacturing. The fiscal independence led to better education which in turn led to increased awareness. The educated middle class was becoming enlightened and were in no mood to consider themselves anyway inferior to the other two estates. Many philosophers of the likes of Voltaire, Locke and Rousseau etc were propagating the idea of liberty and equality. In his 'Two treaties of government' Locke sought to refute the doctrine of divine and absolute right of Monarch. Rousseau carried forward the idea proposing a form of government based on social contract between people and their representatives. In the 'Spirit of Laws', Montesquieu proposed a division of power within government between Legislative, the executive and the judiciary.

The oppression of the gentry by privileged, the chaos, the enlightened middle class was well recipe for a revolution in waiting.

So I was talking about empty exchequer, a new tax proposal, Estate Council, a young king and his wife Marie Antoinette. On 5 May 1789 Louis XVI convened a meeting of Estate General to get approval for his proposal of increase in the tax. The first and second estates had send 300 representatives each whereas third estate had 600 representatives. As per the tradition each estate had one vote. But this time third estate demanded that the each person should have one vote for which the king didn’t consent. Owing to king’s refusal to accept their demand the members of the third estate walked out of the assembly.

On June 20 of 1789 members of third estate assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the ground of Versailles. They declared themselves National assembly and formed a new constitution which curtailed the power of Monarch. They were led by Mira beau and Abbe' Sieyes'.

Meanwhile the condition of common man in France was deteriorating. Because of the severe winter harvest was bad which led to scarcity of food. Inflation became very high. There was rioting happening everywhere. Taking the recce of situation King sent troops in Paris. This agitated the people more.

On 14th July 1789 the angry crowd stormed and destroyed the epitome of state tyranny, The Bastille (the State Prison), and freed the prisoners. Though there were only seven prisoners in Bastille at that time the storming became a symbol of rise of oppressed against the anarchy. The spark has been put in the heap of wool; the conflagration would follow subsequently.

In the country side rumors spread that the Lord of Manors have hired brigands to destroy the crops. Fearing this peasants attacked the Chateaux with axe, sickle, hoes, pitch fork or whatever they were getting their hands on. In this frenzy and fear the old societal structure was crumbling and a new era was taking shape, but not so soon, a lot of blood shed was still to happen.

Realizing the gravity of the situation, Louis XVI accorded recognition to the National Assembly and the new constitution that was drafted by members of Third Estate. On 4th Aug 1789 the assembly decreed the abolition of feudal system. Tithe was abolished and the land of church confiscated.
By 1791 the National assembly completed the draft of Constitution. France became a constitutional monarchy with very limited power to the Monarch. Right to vote was given to a people who paid taxes and were above 25 years of age and.

The lure of power is hard to resist and more so if one has enjoyed it in past. Peeved and stifled by the new constitution, Louis XVI entered into secret negotiation with King of Prussia and Austria. But before anything could materialize for the King, the National Assembly which came to know about monarch’s intention voted in April 1792 and declared a war against Prussia and Austria.

Thousand of citizens volunteered for the war. This was seen as the gentry’s war against monarchy and aristocracy. People from every nooks and corners of France marched, singing songs, toward Paris. Among patriotic song they sang was Marseilles first sung by people from Marseilles. This was composed by Roget deL'Isle and later became the national anthem of France.

When the war was gaining pace at front, people back home were actively discussing the situation. Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own action. They agreed that the revolution needs to be supported and taken forward to next level. One such club was that of Jacobins named after Saint Jacob. There leader was Maximillian Robespierre. The members of this club were mainly from the lower segment of society. It is to be noted that even though France became a constitutional monarchy, the right to vote was limited to wealthier segment of society. The women and poor were still devoid of this.

In summers of 1792 Jacobins planned an insurrection. On August 10 they stormed the palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king's guard and held the king hostage for long hours. Elections were held and all men above 21, irrespective of their wealth, got the right to vote. On 21 Sep 1792, the assembly declared France a republic and abolished monarchy.


Louis XVI was sentenced to death by court on charge of treason. On Jan 21 1793 he was executed publicly in palace de la Concorde. Marie Antoinette met the same fate shortly.

Shortly after this, in the newly born republic of France, followed the reign of terror. Between 1793 and 1794, Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. Whom he saw as enemy of Republic were executed. Because of this reign of terror even his supporters became his detractors. He was convicted by court in July 1794, arrested and on next day executed.

The fall of Jacobin government once again allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non propertied section of society. It provided two elected legislative councils. These then selected a directory of five elected members. The idea of setting a directory was that power did not rest in the hand of single person. But the members of directory could not concur on many issues.

The instability of directory marked paved the way for the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself as the emperor of France.

The period from July 1789 to 1799 is considered as the French Revolution. French revolution left a huge impact on world. It gave the world an idea about liberty and equality. It empowered the women and poor. This was a precursor to Russian revolution and nationalist movements shaping up in many colonies of European power.