The Six Orthodox Hindu Philosophical System

The Sanskrit term for Philosophy is Darsana, derived from Dristi meaning View or Sight. During the 5th and the 6th century B.C following the Rise of Buddhism and Jainism , six orthodox (astika) religious philosophical system developed. They all accepted the authority of Veda although their interpretation differs on various points and include theistic, monistic, atheistic and dualistic views. Despite their differences these systems are regarded as complementary aspects of one truth seen from different points of view.
The six systems are usually coupled in pair. The second system of each pair is more a methodology than metaphysical schools. The pairs are

· Samkhya (Based on intellectual knowledge) and Yoga (On control of Senses and inner faculty)
· Vaisesika (The experimental point of view based on sensory experience) and Nyaya (Logical view based on Dialectics)
· Vedanta (Based on metaphysical speculations) and Mimamsa (Deistic and Ritualistic point of View based on sacred text)

The three main unorthodox systems (Nastika) are the Buddhist, Jaina and Charvaka. The first two deny the authority of Veda but believes in future life, while the materialist Charvaka denies both propositions.

Samkhya: The literal meaning of Samkhya is enumeration. It is system of dualistic realism attributed to semi mythical sage Kapila. The oldest extent Samkhya text is the Samkhyakarika of Isvarakrishna (3rd and 4th century AD)
Two ultimate eternal realities are recognized in this system: The spirit (Purusha) and Nature (Prakriti). Prakriti is a single, all pervasive, complex substance which evolves in the world into countless different shapes. Its three main constituents or Gunas are Sattava, Rajas and Tamas. Such guna has distinct characteristics which to some extent are antagonistic to others yet they always coexist and cooperate to produce everything in world. The unfolding of new world commences only when purusha and prakriti associate (Samyoga) whereupon Prakriti begins the long process of differentiation.
Initially the Samkhya system was atheistic, however under the influence of the yoga system with which it coalesced later, it became theistic.

Yoga: It accepts most of the Samkhya epistemology and also the view that individual souls emerge from the universal soul. Svetasvatra Upanishad states: “ Samkhya is knowledge; Yoga is practice”
The eight steps of yogic practice are:
- Yama (Restrain)
- Niyama (Disciplin )
- Asana (The adoption of comfortable position)
- Pranayama (The technique of breath control)
- Dharana (Concentration)
- Dhayana (Uninterrupted meditation)
- Samadhi (Total absorption)
In Yoga philosophy the Supreme Being is eternal, able to bring about association of the eternal divine principles or Prakriti and Purusha which results in unfolding of the cosmic process.

Vaisesika: This School of thought is said to be originated from legendary sage Kanada(Uluka) and is based on Vaisesika sutra.
The early Vaisesika promulgated an atomistic account of the universe. It was based on the concept that everything in the world (except soul, consciousness, time, space & mind) is composed of various combination of atoms which remains after a material object has been reduced to its smallest part.

Nyaya: This is a system of Logical realism founded by the sage Gautama also known as Aksapada. It is based on Nyaya Sutra, probably composed about the 2nd century AD. There are five clauses in Nyaya Philosophy:
- The proposition
- The cause
- The exemplification
- The recapitulation of the cause
- The conclusion
Nyaya teaching states the existence of ideas, beliefs, vision and emotions are all dependent on mind, since without a mind to think then they would not exist.

Vedanta: The term Vedanta means ‘The end of Vedas’ or the culmination of Vedic speculation. The basic text is the “Brahma Sutra” or “Vedanta Sutra” attributed to Badrayana and composed between 200 to 450 AD. The main schools within Vedanta are Advaita (non dualism), Visishtadvaita (qualified non dualism) and Dvaita (dualism).
The first systematisers were Gaudapada and Sankara who established the Advaita Vedanta. It is very similar to Sunyavada philosophy of Mahayana. Sankara based his doctrine or famous passage “Thou art that” (tat tavm asi) of the Chandogya Upanishad.

Mimamsa: Mimamsa means ‘Critical examination’or ‘solution of a problem by reflection’. The early Mimamsa is called the purvamimasa and the later the more complex Vedanta called Uttaramimamsa or Brahmamimsa which concentrates on teaching of Upanishadas..
It is the atheistic system attributed to Jamini and summarized in Mimasa Sutra. Miamsa system regards the Vedas as eternal and unchanging. It was forced to reject the usual cosmological view held almost universally in Hindu tradition that world would periodically come into being and dissolve. The world according to miasma, has always existed and is without beginning or end.

Components of Vedic Literature

The word Veda is derived from the root ‘Vid’, which means knowledge. Vedic Literature is called Sruti as they are considered to be secret knowledge or divine revelation. Though the hymns of Sruti are attributed to several Rishis (Sages), tradition maintains that these hymns were merely revealed to the sages and not composed by them. Hence, the Vedas are called the apurushya (not made by Man) and Nitya (Existing in eternity), while the sages are known as Mantradrashta meaning one who saw or received the mantra by right directly from supreme creator.
Composition: The Vedic literature consists of two parts.
- Samhitas
- Brahmanas: These are further divided in three parts
o Brahamanas pure and simple
o Aranyakas
o Upanishadas

Samhitas : These are collection of hymns sung in the praise of various gods. They are most essential part of Vedic literature. They are four in numbers: Rig Veda Samhita, Sama Veda Samhita, Yajur Veda Samhita & Atharva Veda Samhita.

Rig Veda: This is the Veda of praise. It consists of 1017 hymns (Suktas) supplemented by 11 others called Valakhilyas. It is divided in 10 books or Mandala. The oldest hymns are contained in Mandala II to VII and the latest in Madala I & X. Madala II to VII is composed by family of sages viz Gritsamada, Viswamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadhwaja & Vashista. Rig Veda’s hymns represent compositions of different periods by priestly poets of various families. It is purely a religious work, and most of the hymns are all invocations of God. In mandala III we find famous Gaytri mantra addressed to solar deity Savitri.

Sama Veda: Sama is derived from 'Saman' which means a song or melody. It consists of 1810 (or 1549 if one emits reputation) stanzaz. Except 75 stanzas, rest are taken from eight and ninth mandalas of Rig Veda and arranged according to the order in which they were chanted by Udgatri priests at soma sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origin of Indian music is traced to it.

Yajur Veda:(Vedas of Yajur or Formulae) consists of various mantras (hymns) for the purpose of recitation and rules to be observed at time of sacrifice. It is primarily a guide for the use of the adhvarya priests who performed the manual part of ritual. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajpeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. In contrast to Rig and Sama Veda which are in verse entirely this one is in both prose and verse. It is divided into two parts Krishna Yajur Veda and Sukla Yajur veda. The Krishna Yajur Veda is older of the two and contains not only the hymns but also prose commentaries. The Sukla Yajur Veda contains only the hymns. The former consists of four samhitas (the kathaka, kapisthala-katha, Maitrayan and Taittiriya Samhitas) but the latter has only the Vajasaneyi samhitas.

The Atharva Veda: (Veda of Atharvan or the knowledge of magic formulas) contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. Believed to be the work of non Aryans, it is divided into two parts: Paippalada and Saunaka.

Brahmanas: Belonging to the second great class of the Vedas; they are treaties relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. Their subject matter is ritual and language is prose. In short they deal with science of sacrifice. The important Brahmanas are:
1) Aitareya: Related to Rig veda
2) Kausitaki: Related to Rig veda
3) Tandyamaha: Related to Sama Veda
4) Jaiminiya: Related to Sama Veda
5) Taittiriya: Related to Yajur Veda
6) Sathapatha: Related to Yajur Veda
7) Gopatha: Related to Atharva Veda
Tandyamaha Brahmana is one of the oldest. It includes details about Vratyastoma, a ceremony through which people of non Aryan stock could be admitted into Aryan fold. Sathpatha Brahaman is most voluminous and most important of all the Brahamanas.

Aryanyakas: These forest books deals with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. They contain transitional material between the mythology and the ritual of the Samhita and the Brahmanas on the one hand and the philosophy and speculations of the Upanishadas on the other.

Upanishadas: They mark the culmination of Indian thought in the Vedic period. They criticize the rituals and lay stress on the value of right belief and knowledge. They are philosophical texts dealing with topics like the Universal soul, the absolute, individual self etc.
Of the several Upanishads, only 12 are very important. They are
1) Aitareya - Related to Rig veda
2) Kausitaki - Related to Rig veda
3) Chandogya - Related to Sama veda
4) Kena - Related to Sama veda
5) Taittiriya - Related to Yajur veda
6) Katha - Related to Yajur veda
7) Svetasvatra - Related to Yajur veda
8) Brihadaranyka - Related to Yajur veda
9) Isa - Related to Yajur veda
10) Mundaka - Related to Atharva veda
11) Prasna - Related to Atharva veda
12) Mandukya - Related to Atharva veda
Acoording to Upanishads there are two kinds of knowledge: The higher and the lower. The higher knowledge helps us to know the imperishable Brahman, while the lower can be gathered from four Vedas as well as six vedangas. The Mundaka upanishadas is chiefly notable for the clear distinction between higher knowledge of supreme Brahman and lower knowledge of empirical world.

Vedanga and Sutra Literature: In contrast to Vedic literature proper which is considered Sruti or divine revelation, the Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition because they are of human origin. There are 6 vedangas
1) Siksha (phonetics)
2) Kalpa (rituals)
3) Vyakarna (Grammer)
4) Nirukta (Etymology)
5) Chandas (Metrics)
6) Joytisha (Astronomy)
The vedangas are written in form of sutras i.e. condensed in prose style for memorization. Of all the sutras only Kalpa sutra have come down to us and these are divided into three classes
1) Saruta Sutras: Deals with the ritual of great sacrifices of Agni, Soma and animals
2) Grihya Sutras: Deals with domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be made by house holder
3) Dharma Sutras: Deals with laws, manual and custom of people in general.

Then there was neither Aught nor Nougth

'Outlines of Indian Philosophy' by M. Hiriyanna is the book I am reading now days. On page 42 of this book there is mention of 'Song of Creation' from Rig Veda (Chp X, hymn 129). The book extols this hymn as containing flower of Indian thought. The author puts down the English translation of the song by J. Muir in his book but leaves the original song. Reading the translation I felt a familiarity with it. I am writing down the translation.

' Then there was neither Aught nor Nougth, no air nor sky beyond,

What covered all? Where rested all? In watery gulf profound?

Nor death was then, nor deathlessness, nor change of night and day.

That one breathed calmly, self sustained; nought beyond it lay.

Gloom hid in gloom existed first- one sea, eluding view.

That one, a void in chaos wrapt, by inward fervor grew.

Within it first arose desire, the primal germ of mind,

Which nothing with existence links, as sages searching find.

The kindling ray that shot across the dark and dearer abyss-

Was it beneath? or high aloft? What bard can answer this?

There fecundating powers were found, and mighty forces strove-

A self supporting mass beneath, and energy above.

Who knows, who ever told, from whence this vast creation rose?

No gods had then been born-who then can e'er the truth disclose?

Whence sprang this world, and whether framed by hand divine or no-

Its Lord in heaven alone can tell, if even he can show?

Even as a child when I had no idea about monistic thought, I was enchanted by the song played at beginning and end of episodes of the wonderful series of 'Bharat -ek khoj' directed by Shyam Benegal . Not that I was enamored of the lyrics which hardly made sense to me but sere rendition of the prose captivated me. And I know why I was feeling familiar with J. Muirs translation of ‘Song of Creation’.
I googled the lyrics of Bharat ek Khoj and got it from Wikipedia (day by day it is becoming indispensable).

नासदासीन नो सदासीत तदानीं नासीद रजो नो वयोमापरो यत

किमावरीवः कुह कस्य शर्मन्नम्भः किमासीद गहनं गभीरम

सृष्टि से पहले

सत नहीं था

असत भी नहीं

अंतरिक्ष भी नहीं
आकाश भी नहीं था

छिपा था क्या,

कहाँ किसने ढका था

उस पल तो अगम अतल जल भी कहां था

सृष्टि का कौन है कर्ता ?

कर्ता है वह अकर्ता

ऊँचे आकाश में रहता

सदा अध्यक्ष बना रहता

वही सचमुच में जानता या नहीं भी जानता
है किसी को नही पता नही पता नही है पता नही है पता

वो था हिरण्य गर्भ सृष्टि से पहले विद्यमान

वही तो सारे भूत जाति का स्वामी महान

जो है अस्तित्वमान धरती आसमान धारण कर

ऐसे किस देवता की उपासना करें हम हवि देकर
जिस के बल पर तेजोमय है अंबर

पृथ्वी हरी भरी स्थापित स्थिर

स्वर्ग और सूरज भी स्थिर

ऐसे किस देवता की उपासना करें हम हवि देकर

गर्भ में अपने अग्नि धारण कर पैदा कर

व्यापा था जल इधर उधर नीचे ऊपर

जगा चुके व एकमेव प्राण बनकर

ऐसे किस देवता की उपासना करें हम हवि देकर

ऊँ! सृष्टि निर्माता,

स्वर्ग रचयिता

पूर्वज रक्षा कर

सत्य धर्म पालक अतुल जल नियामक रक्षा कर

फैली हैं दिशायें बाहु जैसी उसकी सब में सब पर

ऐसे ही देवता की उपासना करें हम हवि देकर

ऐसे ही देवता की उपासना करें हम हवि देकर

Here the poet-philosopher recognizing, the principle of causality, not only traces the whole universe to a single source (monism) but also tackles the problem of what its nature may be. From time immemorial mankind is trying to fathom the reason of its existence and many expositions have been given. But I like Aziz mian's way:

हर ज्ञानी थक कर हार गया इस जग को पार लगाने में ,

इंसान ने क्या क्या रंग किए इस तेरे अजायबखाने में ,

मैं की जानूं राम तेरा गोरखधंदा

The non chalant Ghalib fed up with his existence says:

‘न था कुछ तो खुदा था, कुछ न होता तो खुदा होता ,

डुबोया मुझ को होने ने, न होता मैं तो क्या होता '