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Friday 22 May 2009

History of Philosophy: What is Philosophy?

When I was a child, every summer, like most of my friends I would visit my grandparents. My paternal grandfather lived in a village about 800 KMs away from Jamshedpur (Where I spent 17 years of my life) and about 200 years back in time.
I found him intelligent even though he had a very minimal formal education. He dropped out of class 3 when was beaten by his master. Still he had all answers to my inquisitive mind.
In every visit of mine at least once he would talk about an earthquake which occurred when he was young. It was difficult for me to imagine him as young. I have always seen him old and sick lying folded on his bed with a towel tied around his back and legs enabling him to rock on his back. Every visit he would tell me that I have grown taller but to my surprise he always looked the same. I never found a change in him. Always lying on his bed and rocking on his back.

I asked him, what causes an earthquake? With an authority like a head master he explained that the Earth is placed on the hump of a giant tortoise that is in Vaikunth (the abode of Lord Vishnu). When the tortoise makes any movement the earth shakes and there is an earthquake. I believed him because he himself believed in this thesis. It was not a simple solution to a curious child’s mind but it was a deeply ingrained belief carried to this date by mythology . The exposition perfectly satisfied my curiosity.
Time passed by. My visit to my grandfather became more and more infrequent. The reason was my studies. But I vividly remembered his stories and his logics. As I studied Geography and Physics, I started doubting my Grandfather’s hypothesis. Gradually the doubt turned into negation and then ridicule. The reason of this was the ‘Plate tectonic’ theory's explanation of Earth quakes. It was very logical and made a lot of sense. I was convinced the same way as I got convinced about a decade back by the 'Tortoise hump' theory.
And then I read more of Geography and more of Science. From a Shallow Surface I dug deep into theories and again my beleif started shaking. From conviction it led to doubt, to utter confusion and then to despair. Many scientists have expressed the limitation of Science in predicting phenomenon. There are phenomena which cannot be expressed with available tools (mathematical formulas, theories, Logic etc) and this is the limitation of Science. It’s inability to express. The biggest challenge in front of scientists today is to express their understanding and this is where Science, like Theology or religion, becomes subjective.
So at this point I am unsure about the cause of an Earthquake. I can not take my grandfather’s theory and Science does not give me a definite and conclusive explanation.

Where I am now with respect to earthquake, early human beings were with respect to their existence. They wanted to know why they exist, what is this universe, who created it , what happens after death? And their quest was neither satisfied by categorical theologians nor the empiricists. There was a vast chasm between theology and Science. And that is when philosophy came into existence as a subject. It occupies the No man’s land between theology and Science. Like Science it is logical. Like theology it was speculative.
The book I am reading now is “The history of Western Philosophy” by Bertrand Russell. In that book Russell write:
"Philosophy, as I shall understand the word, is something intermediate between theology and Science. Like Theology, it consists of Speculations on matter as to which definite knowledge has so far, been unascertainable, but like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of revelation."

In this Blog series, which I have named same as the book titled by Russell, I intend to collate philosophies of various philosophers from the time of antiquity till Date. The ideas would primarily from the books which I have read and it include 3 books.
1) The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant
2) The History of Philosophy by Weber & Perry
3) The History of Western Philosophy.
If all goes as I intend then I will take up Indian Philosophy and I am very keen on that.

Now coming back to earthquakes, how does Philosophy deals with it?
As of now, it doesn’t. Through ages philosophers have been trying to come up with answer to the primal question of being and becoming. Once that is done then probably philosophy will take up other issues, till that time I have to choose between the ‘Plate tectonics’ or the ‘Tortoise hump’ theory. Or else I will have to come up with my own theory which will convince me.

Wednesday 15 April 2009

The Six Orthodox Hindu Philosophical System

The Sanskrit term for Philosophy is Darsana, derived from Dristi meaning View or Sight. During the 5th and the 6th century B.C following the Rise of Buddhism and Jainism , six orthodox (astika) religious philosophical system developed. They all accepted the authority of Veda although their interpretation differs on various points and include theistic, monistic, atheistic and dualistic views. Despite their differences these systems are regarded as complementary aspects of one truth seen from different points of view.
The six systems are usually coupled in pair. The second system of each pair is more a methodology than metaphysical schools. The pairs are

· Samkhya (Based on intellectual knowledge) and Yoga (On control of Senses and inner faculty)
· Vaisesika (The experimental point of view based on sensory experience) and Nyaya (Logical view based on Dialectics)
· Vedanta (Based on metaphysical speculations) and Mimamsa (Deistic and Ritualistic point of View based on sacred text)

The three main unorthodox systems (Nastika) are the Buddhist, Jaina and Charvaka. The first two deny the authority of Veda but believes in future life, while the materialist Charvaka denies both propositions.

Samkhya: The literal meaning of Samkhya is enumeration. It is system of dualistic realism attributed to semi mythical sage Kapila. The oldest extent Samkhya text is the Samkhyakarika of Isvarakrishna (3rd and 4th century AD)
Two ultimate eternal realities are recognized in this system: The spirit (Purusha) and Nature (Prakriti). Prakriti is a single, all pervasive, complex substance which evolves in the world into countless different shapes. Its three main constituents or Gunas are Sattava, Rajas and Tamas. Such guna has distinct characteristics which to some extent are antagonistic to others yet they always coexist and cooperate to produce everything in world. The unfolding of new world commences only when purusha and prakriti associate (Samyoga) whereupon Prakriti begins the long process of differentiation.
Initially the Samkhya system was atheistic, however under the influence of the yoga system with which it coalesced later, it became theistic.

Yoga: It accepts most of the Samkhya epistemology and also the view that individual souls emerge from the universal soul. Svetasvatra Upanishad states: “ Samkhya is knowledge; Yoga is practice”
The eight steps of yogic practice are:
- Yama (Restrain)
- Niyama (Disciplin )
- Asana (The adoption of comfortable position)
- Pranayama (The technique of breath control)
- Dharana (Concentration)
- Dhayana (Uninterrupted meditation)
- Samadhi (Total absorption)
In Yoga philosophy the Supreme Being is eternal, able to bring about association of the eternal divine principles or Prakriti and Purusha which results in unfolding of the cosmic process.

Vaisesika: This School of thought is said to be originated from legendary sage Kanada(Uluka) and is based on Vaisesika sutra.
The early Vaisesika promulgated an atomistic account of the universe. It was based on the concept that everything in the world (except soul, consciousness, time, space & mind) is composed of various combination of atoms which remains after a material object has been reduced to its smallest part.

Nyaya: This is a system of Logical realism founded by the sage Gautama also known as Aksapada. It is based on Nyaya Sutra, probably composed about the 2nd century AD. There are five clauses in Nyaya Philosophy:
- The proposition
- The cause
- The exemplification
- The recapitulation of the cause
- The conclusion
Nyaya teaching states the existence of ideas, beliefs, vision and emotions are all dependent on mind, since without a mind to think then they would not exist.

Vedanta: The term Vedanta means ‘The end of Vedas’ or the culmination of Vedic speculation. The basic text is the “Brahma Sutra” or “Vedanta Sutra” attributed to Badrayana and composed between 200 to 450 AD. The main schools within Vedanta are Advaita (non dualism), Visishtadvaita (qualified non dualism) and Dvaita (dualism).
The first systematisers were Gaudapada and Sankara who established the Advaita Vedanta. It is very similar to Sunyavada philosophy of Mahayana. Sankara based his doctrine or famous passage “Thou art that” (tat tavm asi) of the Chandogya Upanishad.

Mimamsa: Mimamsa means ‘Critical examination’or ‘solution of a problem by reflection’. The early Mimamsa is called the purvamimasa and the later the more complex Vedanta called Uttaramimamsa or Brahmamimsa which concentrates on teaching of Upanishadas..
It is the atheistic system attributed to Jamini and summarized in Mimasa Sutra. Miamsa system regards the Vedas as eternal and unchanging. It was forced to reject the usual cosmological view held almost universally in Hindu tradition that world would periodically come into being and dissolve. The world according to miasma, has always existed and is without beginning or end.